Smith+Ch.5

=**The Roman Rhetorical System**=

Where did it all begin?

 * The death of Alexander the Great led to the division of the Greek Empire.
 * Shortly after his death the separate regions, in particular the Romans of central Italy and the Carthaginians of North Africa were fighting to rule the Mediterranean area.
 * This continued through three armed confrontations known as the Punic Wars, until the Romans prevailed and built an empire that rivaled that of Alexander the Great’s.
 * [[image:http://www.mitchellteachers.org/WorldHistory/AncientRome/Images/punic_wars/MapofExpansionofRomanRepublicPunicWars.jpg width="388" align="right" caption="Map Detailing the Punic Wars"]] Many teachers moved to Rome.

Roman Nation Building Much like the Greeks, the Romans used the rhetoric of mythology to build a sense of nationhood. Virgil’s //Aeneid,// written during the reign of Casear Augustus had a tremendous impact. The story supported the belief that Greece was indeed a place of art, but Rome was a place destined to govern an empire. As the Romans built their mythology, they not only belittled Carthage and borrowed Aeneas, but they went on and started making Greek gods their own by renaming them. I.E. Zeus became Jupiter, Ares became Mars, Poseidon became Neptune, & so on…. The second story of Rome’s founding is more ancient, it was still incorporated by Virgil into his own. The text begins with the story of Rhea Silva who becomes a high priestess and is raped by Mars, producing twins named Romulus & Remus. The story depicts an envious relationship between twin brothers, very similar to the story of Cain and Abel. //“Romulus who gave his name to the city, killed Remus, who dared to jump over a wall that Romulus had built. The story was meant to warn Rome’s enemies never to breach its walls.”// Roman Republic didn’t emerge until approximately 550 BC when some kings believed a council similar to senate would help promote and maintain order. The monarchy was destroyed in 509 BC and Rome began a long period of expansion, as did its Senate. Once the Greek cities pledged allegiance to Rome in 270 BC, it stood on the bring of dominating the Mediterranean.
 * **patrician class** || top of hierarchial society ||
 * **//equites//** || equals/merchants ||
 * **plebs** || common citizens ||
 * **slaves** || slaves/peasants ||

__Stoic and Epicurean Style__

 * The Epicurean school was established by Epicurus in Athens, Greece. Epicurus believed in relying on your own feelings and intuitions to find the truth instead of relying on gods and religion. He is remembered for his doctrine of leading a life of tasteful pleasure.
 * Philodemus of Gadara, a leading Greek Epicurean, believed rhetoricians were incapable of developing arguments in substantive fields like math or chemistry. He believed rhetoric was analogous to medicine in that it could heal body politic, but he believed it should not be substituted for philosophy that produced universal truths.
 * Lucretius studied under Epicurus and is noted as the most prominent propagator of Epicureanism. He examined the world, not some abstract alternate universe or ethereal God, to find the truth.
 * Epictetus advised speakers to use appropriate words and realize that speech was a gift of God.
 * Stoics believed in self control;Stoicism was the philosophy of correct conduct. (Stoics tended to be comprised of mostly upper-class citizens.)
 * Lucius Annaeus Seneca was the most influential Stoic in the 1st century, AD. He believed the soul was actually a god hiding in our bodies.
 * The Skeptics (a smaller group than the Stoics & Epicureans) were the doubters of the day. They tended to be very passive and non-active in the political world.
 * Cynics (mostly from the lower class) believed most acts were initiated by bad motives or self interest.
 * Marcus Tullius Cicero was a leading politician and rhetorical theorist. His impressive speaking abilities made him a leader among the plebs and //equites.// Caesar praised Cicero for discovering all of the treasures of oratory.

Rhetorica ad Herennium This was the first major Roman rhetoric text written in 90 BC. The //Rhetorica// converts the Greek notion of epideictic speaking into demonstrative speaking. The //Rhetorica// divides existing rhetorical theory into **5 canons**: **1) invention** (ethos,pathos,logos) used to make the speech believable, **2)organization** to arrange arguments, **3) style** used for selection of words and sentences appropriate for the speaker, audience, message, and occasion, **4) memory** to hold ideas in the head, **5) delivery**, the proper use of voice, gesture, and movement.

The most important contribution of the //Rhetorica// is its detailed study of organization. It accepts the 3 kinds of speeches laid out by Aristotle: the demonstrative (epideictic), deliberative, and judicial (forensic).

Brought about the **Stasis system** which was the invention of arguments and organization of forensic speeches. Offered a catalogue of questions for the speaker to use to create a speech for defense or prosecution.

Codifies style according to spectrum.
 * Grand**=to move the audience
 * Middle**=to please the audience (sweet)
 * Plain**=to prove (no ornamentation)

Developed arrangement into the following sections:
 * ===// exordium //=== || ====serves to make hearers attentive, receptive, & well disposed==== ||
 * ===// narration //=== || ====states the case or tells the story==== ||
 * ===// division //=== || ====states facts admitted by both sides, enumerates points to be made, & offers a brief point of view of what is to come==== ||
 * ===// confirmation //=== || ====establishes the case and is the most important & developed part of most speeches==== ||
 * ===// refutation //=== || ====points out flaws in opponents arguments==== ||
 * ====//** conclusion **//==== || ====sums up, amplifies, and makes a final appeal to emotions.==== ||

__ Cicero __
"To move, to teach, to please."
 * [[image:http://www.iep.utm.edu/wp-content/media/cicero-02.jpg width="113" height="164" align="left" caption="Marcus Tullius Cicero"]]He was elected praetor: 1 of 8 high judges
 * The greatest orator in Rome.
 * Exiled for not supporting the First Triumvirate, a dictatorship
 * eventually executed
 * Cicero developed a relationship between the art of persuasion and service to the nation.

"The study of rhetoric developed latent talent, talent built character. Character was a crucial ingredient of virtue, and virtue led to heroic acts for the state." (Smith 111)

__ De Oratore __
According to Cicero, a good orator should be someone who has "investigated & heard & read & discussed & handled & debated the whole of the contents of the life of mankind."
 * The creation of public image is important
 * It is hard to find genuine orators
 * Adds new rhetorical concepts: **Auctoritas**-moral authority of the speaker, **Gravitas**-magnitude, integrity
 * Oratory is essential to education because the goal of education is to produce men who can perform practical affairs.

=__ Quintilian __= //"a good man speaking well"// The teacher must educate the citizen orator about values. Course of study includes 5 different narratives: 1) Praise of a famous man 2) Denunciation of a wicked man 3) Comparison of 2 characters 4) Declamation of commonplace virtues 5) Comparison of value propositions

**The Second Sophistic**
 * Occurred during the heigh of imperial Rome.
 * Term used to reflect positively on the declamations of the time (ceremonial/grand speeches)
 * Praised what they found worthy about other cultures and hoped to impose those values on their leaders.

Philosophical Schools "For every school of thought, another school is established in reaction." (Smith 35)

**Epicurean**
-established by Epicurus

-rhetoricians incapable of developing arguments for specific subjects
-rhetoric is useful to prepare orators for the invention of arguments by making them aware of rhetorical situations -also useful in adapting arguments for audience -rhetoric can heal the body politic but cannot be a substitute for philosophy

Stoic -desire is the root of all pain -self control/correct conduct -Seneca was the most influential stoic; believed the soul is a god hiding in our bodies