Smith+Ch.+3

The Development of Rhetorical Theory in Greece Smith Ch. 3 My goal for this wiki is to go over some of the information that we learned in class, then provide some more information based on the reading. I will be “introducing” Sophists and their approach to the rhetorical theory and Plato’s reaction to this approach, as well as showing the view of rhetoric and philosophy from Socrates and Callicles’ points of view.

The chapter begins where mythology is left behind to pursue scientific observation and then scientific observation is left behind for a metaphysical understanding of knowledge.

“Not surprisingly, by Plato’s time, humans were capable of using language, not only to construct their universe but to attack the constructions of others. Language had gained both a creative and destructive dimension. The Sophists developed these dimensions more fully during their ascendancy” (Smith p. 41) “Badly needed, because governmental and jurisprudential reforms called for democratic argument, these “metics” dominated the arts, politics, and education as Athens converted from an agrarian to a trade-centered economy” (Smith pp.41,42) “The Sophists were united in the need to develop virtue (areté) in their young charges. They were less united on other subjects because of their commitment to skepticism, which contributed to a more pluralistic and tolerant society than would exist at any other time in Greece. Their love of display helped reinforce the notion that rhetoric was an art.”(Smith p. 42)
 * __ The Sophists __**
 * Governmental reforms called for democratic argument
 * The Sophists were traveling teachers for hire
 * Metics (resident aliens)
 * Arete (virtue): The practical knowledge of how to function in domestic, political, and social life in an oral society
 * Skepticism
 * Love of display: rhetoric is an art

The dominance of the Sophists in Athenian society is demonstrated by the career and teachings of Gorgias of Leontini (485-380 BC) on the island of Sicily. He provides the best example of a practicing Sophist who came to dominate his adopted city. “Giorgas foreshadowed several major uses of rhetoric in a world based on probabilities, including rhetoric’s impact on politics and how it transcended fiction (mythos) and nonfiction (logos). Giorgas claimed rhetoric to be a ‘powerful lord who by means of the finest and most invisible body affects the most divine works.’ Speech, unlike writing, is invisible to the audience; they hear it but do not see it. Thus, it has magical powers that writing does not possess.” (Smith p. 45) Gorgias was a badass. In his time, public speaking was an Olympic event, of which Gorgias won three times with his orations. He was a very influential teacher not only because he was very good, but also because he lived for nearly a century. “In the process of teaching and practicing, he also advanced the art of rhetoric in several significant ways. He borrowed literary devices from poetry and used them in rhetorical contexts. He believed they could be used to enliven speeches, which had been limited to plain and simple language. Thus, he made speeches more fascinating for his audiences.” (Smith p. 46) The eulogy at the funeral, the commencement address at graduation, and the after-dinner speech at the political fundraiser can be traced to Gorgias’ development of the speech that celebrates values in the contemporary society. “If many citizens are trained in rhetoric, there will be competing illusions in the culture, which means that training everyone in society to learn rhetoric is essential so that audiences have access to a multitude of illusions and can select the strongest.” (Smith p. 47)
 * __ Gorgias __**
 * Believed there was “no permanent criterion” for anything
 * Rhetoric was essential to survival and making sense out of the chaotic world

Socrates and Plato attempted to repudiate the Sophists and their teachings. Plato constructed a “truth” found in another world. This place beyond physical reality, where perfect forms exist permanently, he called the “noumenal world” Plato’s “notable rhetoric” is dialectical, aimed at leading the soul back to the emanating good/God. Socrates argues that the best way to learn is to recollect the truth from the noumenal world where the soul learned the truth while disembodied. He argues that we come to knowledge by recollecting what is already in our souls. Socrates ostensibly proves that wisdom is the only good; ignorance is the only evil. Plato follows the same theme by trying to demonstrate that true rhetors use their power to clear the soul of the illusions of this world, while Sophists use rhetoric to confuse the soul with more illusions. Part of Plato’s bias against the Sophists resided in his belief that thought is superior to language. Because speech is more physical, it is less likely to be able to reach the nonmaterial world of perfect ideas. Thought, however, is immaterial and, therefore, a better vehicle for reaching the ideal. Plato developed a reductionist theory of language, a way by which language can be reduced to basic essence. By looking behind various ideas and how they are woven together, a rhetorical theorist can determine if ideas are properly related.
 * __ Socrates and Plato __**
 * Attacked Sophists and their teachings
 * “Truth” found in another world: The noumenal world
 * World of change vs. World of permanence
 * Truth is written on our souls but only accessible through philosophical dialogue and reflection.
 * Rhetoric is not an art
 * Rhetoric is a habitude
 * It is a form of flattery

Callicles is called upon to argue with Socrates. Socrates, ironically, compares Callicles to a touchstone for testing gold. He has intelligence, goodwill, and candor. Socrates claims that if he can convince Callicles, then Socrates knows that he has spoken the truth Socrates: “We are arguing about the way of human life, and what question can be more serious than this to a man who has any sense at all; whether he should follow after the way of life to which you exhort me, and truly fulfill what you call the manly part of speaking in the assembly, and cultivating rhetoric, and engaging in public affairs, after your manner; or whether he should pursue the life of philosophy.”
 * __ Callicles __**
 * Accuses Socrates of twisting words and using dialogue to create traps
 * Cannot use human nature as a measure of goodness

Callicles: The philosopher creeps into the corner for the rest of his life, and talks in a whisper with three or four admiring youths, but never speaks out like a freeman in a satisfactory manner.”

Callicles believes that he must develop his talents fully to know who he is, and that means becoming a man in the city, a participant in civic debate. To do this, one must master rhetoric rather than merely engage in pandering to an audience. Socrates claims that only his rhetoric is noble, and therefore, he is the only real statesmen in Athens. Callicles accuses Socrates of contradicting himself by engaging in mob oratory and says, “The truth, Socrates, which you…follow is this: Luxury and intemperance and license, when they have sufficient backing, are virtue and happiness.”